IRCS UNUD Journals, Vol. 1 No. 1, February 2017

44

The Heritage Structure of Sanskrit Compound in Old Javanese Language: A Contrastive Linguistics Study

Ni Ketut Ratna Erawati1 and I Made Wijana2

Old Javanese Department Faculty of Arts

Udayana University

Denpasar, Indonesia [email protected]

AbstractSanskrit and Old Javanese language are not cognate language. In a language comparative study, the language that has no geneologis relationship could be analyzed contrastively. In typological morphological, Sanskrit is classified into flective language, while the Old Javanese language is classified agglutinative languages. The aim of this writing is to describe and explain the grammatical process of Sanskrit compound word that orbed into Old Javanese. The data tabulation belonging to the compound words were analyzed explanative descriptively according to the nature of the data and the methods and techniques that relevant to the object of study. The methods and techniques used were framed into three stages, namely the data providing, data analysis, and presenting analysis. The theoretical basis of language comparison is similarity or semblance of form and meaning. Based on the analysis, the compound word in Old Javanese language largely derived from the Sanskrit in free base form or derivation form. The forms are borrowed intact and some are accompanied by grammatical processes in the Old Javanese. The similarity and resemblance of these forms are inherited as a loan. The Old Javanese compounding process has the structure: Sanskrit + Sanskrit, Sanskrit + Old Javanese, Old Javanese + Sanskrit. Grammatical processes that occurred are affixation appropriate rules of Old Javanese.

Keywords: cognat set, contrastive, heritage, grammatical process, structure

  • i.    Introduction6

Historically, Sanskrit is a language derived from the India. In period of first ten centuries of AD calendar, in India Sanskrit is no longer used as a daily language instruction but it is the language in the literature used by society in upper classes social strata, as in the palace. In addition to Sanskrit, in religious circles and the needs of worship also use Pali as a sacred language, especially in a part of Buddha literature. While on the other hand, in the community in their daily lives also encountered various native languages according to their regions, such as languages in parts of North India and Central which is derived from Indo-Aryan and in parts of South India, such as Tamil language, Telugu, etc. including clumps of Dravidian (Zoetmulder, 1985: 10). Furthermore, Zoetmulder explained that based on the origin and morphology, Sanskrit is closer to the Indo-Aryan language instead of Latin in Europe. Based on the position, Sanskrit in India is used by the indigenous

people of Indo-Aryan and a small portion out among scholars and educated they still understand Sanskrit.

Further development, certain groups, such as ksatriya and merchant groups from India were going to Indonesia. The social contact occurred through marriage among Indonesian with foreigners or through trade association and settled in Java. The groups of traders from India are along the coast and built trade centre. In daily communicating, they used Indo-Aryan or Dravida language. The social contact of Indian groups with indigenous (in Indonesia) caused a lot of vocabulary or lexicon of the Indians used by Javanese language speakers in the form of indigenous languages of India that attached to it. The long social contact caused the vocabulary entered into Javanese vocabulary through its Sanskrit that existing first. The number of Sanskrit lexicon used and raised mainly nominal words and adjective. Thus, Sanskrit has major influence on the development of the next Old Javanese language.

In clumps of language, Sanskrit and Old Javanese are dissimilar. This means that both languages are not cognate (are contrastive), namely Sanskrit including a clump of Indo-European (especially Indo-Aryan),

while the Old Javanese is the Austronesian family. Based on morphological and typological classification raised by August von Schlegel, languages in the archipelago in general include to agglutinative language, while the Greece language, Latin, Samit, and Sanskrit include to synthetic or flektive language (Keraf, 1990: 9). Based on the explanation above, this article discussed about kompositum in Old Javanese language which is assumed from Sanskrit. As for the issue under review, namely (1) how the form and structure of compound word of the language are reflected into Old Javanese? (2) how are the grammatical of these forms in Old Javanese?

  • II.    concepts and theory

The operational definition is needed in this writing to facilitate analysis. Therefore, there are three important concepts need to be explained, namely: composition, grammaticalization, and cognat set.

Referring to the concept raised by Kridalaksana, Chaer (2008: 211) explains that the composition or compounding is the process of combining the two lexemes or more that creates new words. The process result is called mixing lexeme, which became a prospect compound. If a compound word derived from mixed lexeme is the result of morphological processes. Meanwhile, the blend lexemes which are words with words is a phrase called syntactic process. The incorporation of elements has a similar form, yet it could be clearly clarified, that the composition is a matter of morphology, while the phrase is syntax problem.

Grammatical concept means the receipt of a form or any arrangement that may exist in a language, in accordance with the grammatical rules of a language is concerned with the grammar of other particular language. Grammaticalization is a process of morpheme change with lexical meaning become a tied morpheme that implies the grammatical meaning (Kridalaksana, 1984). Furthermore, cognat set is a set of word pairs that have similar form and meaning can be considered having a certain relationship. The similar form and meaning contained in languages comparable due to three factors, namely; a direct inheritance from the related language, inheritance by chance, and inheritance for the loan. Inheritance for loan (borrowing) is an acceptor language that absorbs certain elements of a donor language due to history contact. This concept is especially relevant considering the Old Javanese in its historical development are much influenced by Sanskrit as a result of long social contact.

The theory used in analyzing is the theory of Comparative Linguistics especially Comparative Historical Linguistics. Comparative Linguistic Theory rests on two hypotheses, the hypothesis of connectedness and regularity hypothesis (Jeffers and Lehiste, 1979: Hock, 1988: 567). The basic hypothesis theory is the similarity of linguistic form. Fundamentals of historical comparative linguistics began laying by scholars in Western Europe at the beginning of 19th century. The comparison is based on the philological comparisons.

  • III.    Methodology

This study is a contrastive between Sanskrits and Old Javanese. Therefore, universally the method is based on the method of comparison language. The comparative-contrastive study is based on the two hypotheses, namely the regularity hypothesis and the hypothesis of connectedness. Language comparison method starts from languages comparison in Europe, later evolved Austronesian languages comparison, as well as Nusantara languages comparison. In accordance with the object of study, the analysis methods applied into three phases’ methods and techniques such as the following.

  • 3.1    Methods and Techniques of Data Provisioning

The provision of data is an early stage of research. This stage used listening method. This method is a way to obtain the data through listening to language use. The term listening here is not only related to the use of verbal language, but also the use of written language. This method has intangible tapping basic technique. Tapping the use of written language occurred when researchers dealing with the use of the language that is not the people who are talking or chatting, but the form of written language, such as the ancient texts, narrative text, the languages in the mass media, and others. Tapping technique is referred as the basic techniques in the listening method since essentially it is realized by tapping (Mahsun, 2005: 90-93).

  • 3.2    Methods and Techniques of Analyzing Data

The complete data acquisition is a crucial stage since at the analysis stage the rules that regulate the existence of the research object should be obtained. The rules that found although they are simple is the core of scientific activity. There are two main methods used in the data analysis, they are intralingulal frontier method and extra lingual frontier method.The concept is to compare or something comparable and it should contain connectedness meaning that match interpreted

as attributing to compare, while intralingual refers to elements that are in the language. Intralingual equivalent method is applied way to analysis by attributing compare the elements that are lingual, both contained in one language or in several different languages. The method assisted with related techniques, namely equalize circuit-appeal techniques (HBS), circuit-appeal technique to distinguish (HBB), and circuit-appeal techniques for equate principal (Mahsun, 2005: 111-113; compare with Djajasudarma (2006) with a unified method and distributional; Sudaryanto (1993) with a unified method and more classified. Some techniques that need to be added when analyzing are interruptions technique, substitution technique, and delition technique. The aim of using these techniques is to test the grammatical linguistic construction.

  • 3.3    Methods and Techniques of Presenting Analysis

The results were presented in two methods, namely (a) method of presenting analysis by using words, including the use of terminology which is technical and (b) the formulation by using signs or symbols specific. Both methods called as formal and informal methods. Formal methods, such as an asterisk (*) is used to denote a lingual form that are not grammatically and placed before the words, for example; (* mencantik in Indonesian), (* niuk in Balinese), and so forth.

  • IV.    Results And Discussion

    • 4.1    Compound basic and its characteristics

Theoretically, the compound is a combination of basic morpheme that the whole of its status as a word that has a pattern of phonological, grammatical and semantic specifically according to the norms of the language concerned (KBBI, 1995: 452). Other experts, namely Haspelmath (2002: 154) explains that a compound word consisting of two or more lexemes arranged side by side into a single word. In other words, the compound is a complex lexeme consisting of one or more lexeme roots. Furthermore, compound words are classified by their internal structure into three types, namely attributive, coordinative and subordinate compound words. Each of these classifications is built by elements that are endocentric and exocentric.

The compound characteristics, Ramlan (1985) explained the characteristics of a compound word, namely; (1) one or all of the elements in the form of principal word, which means grammatical unit that

cannot stand alone in ordinary speech and grammatically does not have independent feature that can be the basic form of a word; (2) elements may not be separated or not possible to change the structure. In addition to the above characteristics, the writing of compound words is written triad (no hyphen). Based on the concept and the characteristics of it, the study of Old Javanese compound that consider derived from Sanskrit are described as follows.

  • 4.2    Form and Structure of compoundSanskrit and Old

Javanese language

No.

Originally form of Sanskrit

Compound Old Javanese Language

Grammatical Process

1

Garbha 'womb'

Garbhapuri'womb' Garbhawalaka ’newborn child' Sunyagarbha ‘barren '

2

Graha ‘house’

Sunyagraha'deserte d house'

3

Krta 'prosperous, perfect'

Krtabhiseka 'crowne d'

Krtacara ‘well-behaved’

Krtadharma ‘fulfill dharma'

Krtalocita ‘has planned'

Angrtalocita ‘attention,watch'

4

Madhura 'Sweet, funny'

Madhuraprawada's weet speech' Madhurawacana ‘gentle speech'

5

Candra ‘moon'

Candraditya, candrarka, candraruna, rawicandra, suryacandra'sun-moon' Candragrahana ‘eclipse' Candrakanti 'moonli ght'

Candrardha ‘crescent ' Ardhacandra ‘crescent’

6

Dwara'flow, melt'

Madhudrawa 'honey'

Rajatadrawa ‘liquid silver'

7

Madhya 'centre'

Kamadhya ‘'in the middle'

Madhyadesa ‘middle area'

Madhyaratri ‘midni

ght'

8

Mukhya‘in front’

Matrimukhya‘prime minister '

10

Padma ‘lotus, special'

Padmamudra ’lift hand'

Padmasari ‘kind of jewel’

Pinadmasari ‘trimmed bypadmasari,na me of gems'

11

Pañca ‘five, consists of five'

Pañcaatus ‘500’, Pañcaewu ‘5000’ Pañcadewata ‘five gods’

Pañcaksara (a) (Nom.) ‘five syllables’

Pañca warna ‘five colors’

Amañcadesa ‘five directions’ Amañcanagara, mancanagara, amañcanagari, amañcanagantu n ‘five countries;high-level officials'

12

Astra'bow; weapons'

Smarastra ‘falling love'

-

13

Cakra' wheel; weapons disc’

Cakrawarti ‘king’

Añakrawarti ‘hold the highest power’

14

Mandala ‘round’ Bhuvana/bh avana'unive rse, empire, palace residence, sanctuary, temple'

Mandalabhuwana/ mandalabhawana/ Bhuwanamandala/ Bhawanamandala 'around the world'

-

15

Dharma ‘'of truth / goodness'

Putra ‘Son'

Jñana ‘'knowledge'

Dharmaputra, putradharma'son of Dewa Dharma' Dharmajñana, jñanadharma ‘dharma knowledge, knowledge of the truth'

Kajñanadharma n ‘terms of knowledge of the truth'

  • 4.3    Discussion

Based on the tabulation of the form and structure of the compound above, generally Old Javanese compound showed there are the same forms accompanied by a similar meaning. Similarities in form and meaning are considered occur since of loan factor. The process of compounding occurs in Old Javanese through direct loans of Sanskrit compound words, Old Javanese compound term, both derived from the Sanskrit and authentic from Old Javanese. The words consist of a basic form and a form of derivative. In the formation of Old Javanese compound words that derived from Sanskrit can be a free base from which can directly be combined with

the original structure of Sanskrit or mixture structure (Sanskrit-Old Javanese or Old Javanese-Sanskrit). For example, the word bhuwanamandala 'the whole world'. If the form is traced from its Sanskrit, that is from Bhuvana / bhavana 'residence' and mandala 'circumference, round' each word has different meaning. Words Bhuvana / bhavana were adapted from the / v / become / w / so as to form bhuwana / bhawana. Adaptation of the segment is still at the same point of articulation, ie labial segment and the same feature [+ sound]. In addition, some are accompanied by changes in the structure and adapted to the Old Javanese pattern, such as word mandalabhuwana. The form Bhuwanamandala thus mandalabhuwana form were both used in Old Javanese. As another example, dharmajñana-jñanadharma 'knowledge of the truth', Dharmaputra-putradharma 'son of Dewa Dharma' is personified in the figure of Yudhistira in epic Mahabharata. These forms (in the Old Javanese language) of pattern formation or a combination can be interchanged or inverted (mandalabhuwana - bhuwanamandala, Dharmaputra --- putradharma, and so on). In addition, compound words in Sanskrit can be developed further by combining words with Old Javanese Language with different pattern order, but the meaning is fixed. Another example such as candrardha - ardhacandra 'crescent'. Both forms are grammatical in Old Javanese. Other examples, such as: suryacandra, suryaraditya.

In term of derivative form can be seen in the form of derivative of Sanskrit processed through affixation. Affixation clung plural forms had followed the Old Javanese grammatical system, such as the form amancadesa 'in five directions'. The form is undergoing a process Morphophonemic with Old Javanese language system. Amancadesa form 'in the five directions' consists of a kompositum basic form pancadesa 'five directions' got affixation in the form of attachment of prefix ang- (explained by the theory of generative phonology distinctive features). The process of assimilation in the form of change of the segment / g / become / m /. The both segments are nasal sound. The nasal segment / m / has similar characteristics with initial segment of its basic form, ie, / p /. In place of articulation, the segment / m / and / p / are same articulation segment, namely bilabial. The segment / p / is broken in an adjacent place caused by contrasting sound features, namely / m / [+ sound] and / p / [-sound]. Incompatibility of these features lead to the segment / p / broke away since less strong with / m /. Thus / p / undergoing assimilation total, which is to be melted / melting /. Furthermore,

the combined of Old Javanese bound morpheme ang-with basic morpheme pancadesa experience grammatical process until make amancadesa. Añakrawarti form is formed of ang- and cakrawarti morpheme. The form is also undergoing a process of morphophonemic that caused the total assimilation between the segments / η / with / c /. Segment / η / and / c / have the different feature, namely / η / [+ sound] segment classified as a nasal and / c / [- sound] classified explosive segment. Meanwhile, from the point of articulation, / c / are in the medio-laminal sound and / η / including dorso-velar segment. Unconformity place or manner or articulation the segment / η / and / c / causing both segments were merged until it is up to the nasal segment / η / which is same articulation with a / c /. Thus, / c / be melted.

Compound forms of Sanskrit that is loaned originally or in the form of adaptation, its presence in the Old Javanese language are acceptable forms or grammatical. Similarly, the forms of the compound word derived in Old Javanese language adapted to the rules of the language.

  • V.    Conclusion

Based on the above analysis it could be concluded that the similarity of form and meaning between two languages that are not allied, that is between Sanskrit with Old Javanese which occur caused of borrowing. Thus, the influence of the inherited Sanskrit elements until now is still a loan (borrowing). Loans compound form that contained in the Old Javanese language could be an original structured of Sanskrit, mixture structured of Sanskrit with Old Javanese language and structured Old Javanese language and Sanskrit, or only Old Javanese language. The cohesion forms and structures caused new meaning. It appears in two characteristics of Old Javanese, namely on the one side many Sanskrit words are emerge and in others side the position and characteristics of the basic maintain themselves as a language of the archipelago, the Old Javanese language.

Acknowledgements

The completion of a scientific work is inseparable from the support of various parties, both facilities and infrastructure. Therefore, our research team would like to thank the Dean of the Faculty of Arts and staffs who have funded this research, for Research and Community Service for Prosperity (RCSP) Udayana University that had facilitated the process of the study. For colleagues who provide support on this hard task.

May God avenge the favor charitable from all of you.

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